Asthma Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Asthma - Essay Example It is important that therapists be familiar with asthma so that they can properly diagnose patients on an individual basis. As such, I picked these articles to review as each person is unique in their diagnosis, as well as their treatment. In Sherry Baker’s article, â€Å"Children in danger from exposure to common chemicals, new studies confirm,† the author divulges into alleged causes of asthma in children, which are the toxic chemicals of common products. One study revealed that children exposed to pesticides during their prenatal stage risked developing a chronic cough at the age of five. This study yields evidence that the respiratory system of a child is defenseless against toxic exposure while in their mother’s womb (Baker, 2012). This chemical found in pesticides that causes children to develop chronic cough is piperonyl butoxide. Two other chemicals that are known to cause chronic coughing in children include diethyl phthalate and butylbenzyl phthalate, which are found in personal care and plastic products. When children are exposed to these chemicals, they are at risk of developing asthma-related airway inflammation. Sarka-Jonae Miller looks at alternative remedies for asthma in her article â€Å"Lifestyle remedies for the management of asthma.† Miller points out that while doctors disagree with lifestyle remedies for asthma, such as acupuncture and breathing exercise, these treatments have been proven to be less harmful than the common prescribed medications (Miller, 2012). Rolfing and osteopathic manipulation can be utilized to alleviate restrictive patterns in muscles and nerves, allowing for easier breathing. Acupuncture has been shown to decrease the frequency of asthma attacks, as well as improve breathing. Various breathing exercises can be used to help individuals control their breathing, thus preventing asthma attacks and allowing individuals to rely less

Alpha Lipoic Acid what is it, and how does it improve (help) Essay

Alpha Lipoic Acid what is it, and how does it improve (help) peripheral neuropathy and insulin resistance - Essay Example The metabolic dysregulation associated with DM causes secondary pathophysiologic changes in multiple organ systems that impose a tremendous burden on the individual with diabetes and on the health care system. The two broad categories of DM are designated type 1 and type 2. ALA has been shown to be useful in type 2 diabetes mellitus, and in order to understand the mechanism of action of ALA in control of DM and DM-associated complicating conditions, such as, neuropathy, it is important to understand the pathophysiologic and biochemical mechanism of these conditions (Boulton, 2005). A prominent biochemical feature of type 2 DM is insulin resistance. This group of disorders is characterised by a pathogenic process that leads to hyperglycemia through variable degrees of insulin resistance, impaired insulin secretion, and increased glucose production. Type 2 DM is characterized by three pathophysiologic abnormalities: impaired insulin secretion, increasing peripheral insulin resistance, and excessive hepatic glucose production. Obesity, particularly visceral or central as evidenced by the hip-waist ratio, is very common in type 2 DM. Adipocytes secrete a number of biologic products, namely, leptin, TFN-alpha, free fatty acids, resistin, and adiponectin that modulate insulin secretion, insulin action, and body weight and may contribute to the insulin resistance. As expected, in the early stage of the disease, glucose tolerance remains normal despite insulin resistance since the pancreatic beta cells compensate by increasing the output of insulin. As insulin resista nce and compensatory hyperinsulinemia progress, the pancreatic islets in certain individuals are unable to sustain the hyperinsulinemic state (Huebschmann et al., 2006). Diabetic Neuropathy Diabetic neuropathy occurs in approximately 50% of individuals with long-standing type 1 and type 2 DM. It may manifest as polyneuropathy, mononeuropathy, and/or autonomic neuropathy. As with other complications of DM, the development of neuropathy correlates with the duration of diabetes and glycemic control; both myelinated and unmyelinated nerve fibers are lost. Because the clinical features of diabetic neuropathy are similar to those of other neuropathies, the diagnosis of diabetic neuropathy should be made only after other possible etiologies are excluded (Boulton et al., 2004). The most common form of diabetic neuropathy is distal symmetric polyneuropathy. It most frequently presents with distal sensory loss. Hyperesthesia, paresthesia, and dysesthesia also occur. Any combination of these symptoms may develop as neuropathy progresses. Symptoms include a sensation of numbness, tingling, sharpness, or burning that begins in the feet and spreads proximally. Neuropathic pain develops in some of these individuals, occasionally preceded by improvement in their glycemic control. Pain typically involves the lower extremities, is usually present at rest, and worsens at night. Both an acute and a chronic form of painful diabetic neuropathy have been described. As diabetic neuropathy progresses, the pain subsides and eventually disappears, but a sensory deficit in the lower extremities persists. Physical examination reveals sensory loss,

Industrialisation and Identity Essay Example for Free

Industrialisation and Identity Essay In 1889 Chicago had the peculiar qualifications of growth which made such adventuresome pilgrimages even on the part of young girls plausible. Its many and growing commercial opportunities gave it widespread fame, which made of it a giant magnet, drawing to itself, from all quarters, the hopeful and the hopeless those who had their fortune yet to make and those whose fortunes and affairs had reached a disastrous climax elsewhere. (Dreiser 15f) At the turn of the 19th century, the industrialisation brought about tremendous change in the US. With innovations and inventions like the steam engine, railroads, electricity, telephones and telegraphing, the structure of American society shifted and evolved. People from the rural areas started flocking to the big cities in hopes of finding work and a better life, a dream many chased in vain. The protagonist in Theodore Dreiser’s novel Sister Carrie, 18-year old country girl Carrie Meeber, is one of the â€Å"hopeful†; she leaves her hometown to find happiness and success in the big city of Chicago. At first, she stays with relatives and experiences the miserable, tiresome day-to-day struggle of the working middle-class of job-hunting and then hard menial labour in a factory. However, she soon grows tired of her situation. She lets herself be mesmerised by the wealth displayed by others, which both intimidates her and fills her with an insatiable longing for money and status. With this desire growing in her heart, she is willing to make all the sacrifices to achieve her goal, leaving her safe, but unexciting home to live with Charles Drouet, a man whom she barely knows, but who offers her a comfortable lifestyle. Nevertheless, Carrie still is not satisfied, so she leaves him for the wealthier George Hurstwood and continues to search for a way to success and happiness by obtaining status and commodities, losing herself in the process. In his novel Sister Carrie, Theodore Dreiser illustrates how the industrialisation did not only change the structure of American society at the turn of the 19th century, but also have a deep impact on the consumer culture and individual consumer behaviour of the American middle-class, marking the beginning of the impossible quest of struggling to create one’s identity through consumption. The Industrialisation The inventions and innovations of the industrialisation brought about great change for American society and people’s everyday lives. Roughly before 1750, even though the Americans with their steadily advancing frontier were a very progress-oriented people, the general expectation was to die in a world not much different to the one one was born in. (Cross 53) However, during and after the industrialisation, the increased development of ground-breaking new technology did not only affect the economy, but also the way people viewed the world. The inventions of the steam engine and electricity, the new ways of travelling and communication over long distances and new forms of retail created new employment and consumption possibilities (Cross 53), allowing a more and more comfortable and luxurious lifestyle in the cities for the upper-class and those middle-class citizens who were able to afford to keep up with the latest trends and fashions. The steam engine is said to be the central invention of the industrialisation period from the 18th to the 20th century, as it inspired as many technological advances as no other invention before it. Invented in Britain at the beginning of the 18th century, Gary Cross explains it took quite some time until was imported, adapted and improved by the Americans to fit their needs. In the 18th century, he reasons, there was no need for an alternative source of energy, as vast forests, coal deposits and water energy were available. In the 19th century, however, this indifferent attitude towards the steam engine changed fundamentally and its potential as an energy source for manufacturing was exploited. Cross 84) By 1830, only about five per cent of the American factories used steam power; by 1900, it was over 80 per cent. (Cross 93) Steam also found its uses in the non-industrial sector as central heating for buildings. In Sister Carrie, Carrie delights in her modern New York apartment â€Å"supplied with steam-heat† and a â€Å"bath with hot and cold water† (307). In addition to that, the steam engine was applied in the area of transportation as energy source for street cars, steam boats, and locomotives. The railroad had a tremendous effect on both the American economy and society in the 19th century. Daniel W. Howe mentions three main consequences of the railroad (among many others): Firstly, it sped up the process of urbanisation by connecting rural areas to the big cities. (Howe 565) For example, Chicago, one of the main settings of Sister Carrie, evolved from a village of less than 100 inhabitants in 1830 to a city of 30,000 in 1850, which would have been absolutely â€Å"inconceivable [†¦] without the railroad. (Howe 567) In 1889, the time the story of the novel sets in, its population is greater than 50,000 (16). Secondly, allowing the efficient transport of commodities across the country by shortening waiting times and cutting costs, the railroad not only led to a tremendous change in trading business, but also provided the incentive for technological advancement in steel production as well as in the efficiency and safety of trains and tracks, laying the groundwork for f urther innovation of methods of transport later in history. Howe 566) Finally, as a comparatively convenient and affordable way of travelling, railroads also provided the opportunity for long-distance trips and vacations in far-away places even for the American middle-class. (Howe 565) There are two reasons for taking the train in Sister Carrie: for business purposes, and with the intent of moving to another city. Interestingly, there are no actual vacations taking place in the novel; merely plans of travel are mentioned, mostly overseas trips to Europe (142;357). Of far more interest are Drouet and his ambivalent feelings about business travel. He undoubtedly enjoys meeting and flirting with the ladies he meets on the road. He has no reservations of striking up a chat with Carrie on her first train journey from her hometown to Chicago, who (unsurprisingly) is very impressed by Drouet and his knowledge of the various places he has visited on business. (4ff) Drouet is a â€Å"drummer†, a travelling salesman, a job requiring the railway for fast long-distance travel. For him, train journeys hold no deep meaning; they are simply a necessary part of his work. In a short flirtation with a chambermaid, he reveals that he travels far, but does not care for travelling all that much, explaining, â€Å"You get tired of it after awhile. † (200) The same trip, merely a boring return of a business trip for Drouet, is a life-altering, exciting journey for Carrie. Never having travelled before, she is reassured by the thought that home will never be far away since the cities were â€Å"bound more closely by these very trains which came up daily† (3). The railroad shortened travel times drastically. While it took five weeks to travel from Chicago over the Appalachians to New York in 1790, seventy years later the distance could be crossed in merely two days. (Cross 104) Originally, Carrie moves from the countryside to the city because she is in need of work; however, her expectations for her future are far more ambitious. Her hopes of fortune and fame she projects on â€Å"[t]his onrushing train†, which â€Å"was merely speeding to get there. † (3) The second and by far most dramatic journey in Sister Carrie, however, is the elopement of Carrie and Hurstwood. Having stolen a large sum of money from his employers, he tricks Carrie into leaving Chicago with him on a train bound for Detroit, from where they continue to Montreal, Canada. Again, all hope is set on the train as the (only) way to a better future. In this case it is Hurstwood, who in his desperation loses all eloquence, who considers the only possible future as â€Å"a thing which concern[s] the Canadian line. † (275) Making the train his lifeline, he hopes to cross the border as soon as possible, since abroad he will be safe from the legal repercussions of his crime. Hurstwood manages to persuade Carrie to stay with him, but since life in Montreal does not seem worthwhile to either of them, they soon decide to move on to New York, again with the hope of a promising future awaiting them once they get off the train. The invention of the telegraph revolutionised long-distance communication thoroughly, possibly even more so than the railroad did long-distance transportation. Professor Samuel Finley Breese Morse and his team were the first to develop a commercially viable kind of electric telegraph in America; by 1848, the system of wires reached Chicago. Howe 695) Research and experiments led to Thomas Edison finding a way of sending messages back and forth over one wire at the same time in the 1870s and to his invention of the phonograph, with which messages could be recorded. (Cross 176) Unlike the telephone, which was invented by Alexander Graham Bell in 1876 and was mainly used for social purposes (Cross 181), the telegraph was mostly used for commercial purposes and information transmission. It also found its use in communication on the railroad, improving the safety and efficiency of trains. Cross 102) In Sister Carrie, the telegraph and even the telephone have short appearances at crucial points in the story, both concerning Hurstwood’s crime and dramatic escape. Coming across a â€Å"famous drug store† with â€Å"one of the first private telephone booths ever erected† (271), Hurstwood phones the train station to obtain information regarding the train times, as he wishes to leave as soon as possible. Opposed to the novelty of the telephone so explicitly stressed by Dreiser, the already well-established telegraph is casually integrated in the story. On the train bound for Detroit, Hurstwood worries that the afternoon papers might already cover his theft and wonders â€Å"what telegraphs might come† (282), indicating his fear of not being able to escape fast enough. The telegraph was a useful tool for the police to coordinate searches and catching criminals before they were beyond reach, apparently leading to a few successful arrests. (288) Once in Canada, Hurstwood anxiously checks the newspaper, and, â€Å"among the riff-raff of the telegraphed murders, accidents, marriages and other news items from out the length and breadth of the land† (297), he discovers a small notice of his own crime. Because he cannot see himself staying abroad, he tries to negotiate with his former employers the return of the money and a possible rehiring, the latter of which obviously eliciting a much colder response than the first–also via telegraph. (302) Electricity was one huge step towards a modern economy and society. At first mainly used to replace gas lighting, its uses expanded rapidly with every new innovation and improvement of existing technology; as mentioned, the telegraph and telephone depended on electric energy, and the electronic signal for the railway introduced in 1872 greatly improved the safety of trains. Cross 102) However, in the first years, electricity was mainly used to making America a brighter place–in the literal sense. (Cross 157) Brighter and cleaner than gas lighting, the electric light bulb invented by Thomas Edison in 1879 gradually took over homes, offices, and city streets. (Cross 158) In the late 1880s, steam-powered street cars in many cities were replaced by electric ones, as they were a faster alternative to get the workers from their homes to their work places and back. They were also less expensive, and the inevitable pollution was concentrated in the area the energy was generated and not spread throughout the city; electric streetcars did, however, increase noise pollution. (Cross 159; 168) Light is the element creating the most obvious distinction between places of luxury and places of suffering in Sister Carrie: The former are all bathed in light, while the latter are cast in shadow or are dimly lit at best. For example, the shoe factory Carrie works in in the beginning is xtremely poorly lit (36f), while the department stores as temples of consumption and the streets as their runways are practically aglow (30). As their financial situation in New York becomes irreversibly dire, Hurstwood one day finds Carrie â€Å"reading, quite alone. It was rather dark in the flat, shut in as it was. † (358) Bright lights, on the other hand, are abundant in places Carrie enjoys being; she quite literally experiences the â€Å"bright side of life† when she dines out with friends at Sherry’s, a very popular and expensive restaurant the high society of New York likes to dine at. She marvels at the splendid dining chamber, all decorated and aglow, where the wealthy ate, [with its] incandescent lights, the reflection of their glow in polished glasses, and the shine of gilt upon the walls [†¦]. On the ceilings were colored traceries with more gilt, leading to a centre where spread a broad circle of light–incandescent globes mingled with glittering prisms and stucco tendrils of gilt.

Myoglobin In The Utilization Of Oxygen In Animals Biology Essay

Myoglobin In The Utilization Of Oxygen In Animals Biology Essay Myoglobin is an oxygen-binding globular protein which is vital in facilitating the acquisition and utilization of oxygen in animals. Myoglobin was isolated and purified from ground water buffalo extract. The Myoglobin was isolated by cation-exchange chromatography, and concentration of Myoglobin is measured by spectrophotometry. Total concentration of protein was determined by performing Bradford protein assay. Iron analysis was performed by atomic absorption spectrophotometry (AAS). Molecular weight of Myoglobin was determined by running SDS-PAGE. A total amount of 144 ug Myoglobin was purified by the cation-exchange chromatography with a relative purity of 25.9%. The concentration of the purified Myoglobin was determined to be 0.072 ug/uL. The molecular weight of Myoglobin was determined to be 18204 Da And 0.423 mg of iron were detected in the acid digested extract Introduction Myoglobin is a globular protein which contains a single polypeptide chain of about 153 amino acids and an iron-porphyrin complex, or the heme group (3). And it has a molecular weight of 16700 Da and 153 amino acids (4). The non-covalently bound heme group, which resides in the hydrophobic interior of the native globin chain, is able to unfold under acidic condition and consequently weakens the interaction between the heme group and the globin (5). Myoglobin is an oxygen-transport protein which can be found in muscle tissues of all mammles. Myoglobin is critical in mammalian cell in that it is responsible for storage and distribution of oxygen, and possibly carrying energy (4). Diving animals such as seals and whales have excessive amount of Myoglobin that help them travel undersea by storing and transport oxygen (9). It plays a significant role in the physiological function of heart and skeletal muscle (2). Elevated consumption of oxygen during exercise necessitates the production of myoglobin in red muscle and heart cells, and the transportation of oxygen by myoglobin from the sarcolemma to the mitochondria in vertebrate heart and red muscle cells. (1) Spectrophotometry studies the interaction of electromagnetic radiation with molecules, atoms and ions (10). It can shed light on the physical and chemical properties by measuring the emission or absorption of electromagnetic radiation (10). Besides, it is also used to identify biomolecules from their individual absorption spectrum. In the meantime, spectrophotomoetry can quantitatively measure the concentration of molecules in solution According to the Beer-Lambert law, the fraction of incident light absorbed by a solution at a given wavelength is indicative of the concentration of the absorbing species (10) . Tryptophan and tyrosine can absorb ultraviolet light, which accounts for the characteristic strong absorbance of light at wavelength of 280 nm by most proteins (9). Atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS)can be used to determine the identity and concentration of chemical elements in the gaseous state by measuring the light radiation absorbed by the elements (10). Ion-exchange chromatography is a technique for separating biomolecules capable of being involved in electrostatic interactions (10). Molecules can be separated based on their sign and magnitude of net charge at a given pH and formation of electrostatic linkages between thee resin and the protein of interest (9). Ion exchange separations take place in columns packed with an iron-exchange resin (10). Resins with bound anionic groups are cation exchanges whereas those with bound cationic groups are anion exchangers (9). Selection of ion exchange resin depends on what is to be purified, the pH to be used in the column, and the strength of the functional group (10). Electrophoresis is the separation of proteins based on the motion of the charged proteins under the influence of an electric field (9). The migration of the protein depends on its shape, size, charge and chemical composition (10). An electrophoretic method, polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) can be used to estimate the purity and determine the molecular weight of the protein (9). Treatment of the protein by the ionic detergent sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) can give it a uniform net charge, and protein can then be separated based solely on its mass (10). In this experiment, Myoglobin is extracted and purified by cation-exchange chromatography from ground water buffalo using Beffer A (20 nM, pH 5.6, KH2PO4) and Buffer B (20mM, Tris buffer, pH 7.5). Absorbance of the eluent fractions is measured at 280nm and 417nm. Total amount of protein and the concentration of Myoglobin are determined using Bradford assay from BSA protein. Molecular weight of Myoglobin was determined by performing SDS-PAGE. Iron content in the acid digested extract is measured by atomic absorption spectrophotometry (AAS). A total amount of 144 ug Myoglobin was purified by the cation-exchange chromatography with a relative purity of 25.9%. The molecular weight of Myoglobin was determined to be 18204 Da. 0.757 mmol of iron and 39.5 nmol of myoglobin were detected in the acid digested extract, with a ration of 20:1. Results A total of five samples were collected from a solution of 10.02g thawed ground buffalo mixed with 20.0mL, 20mM, pH 5.6, KH2PO4 (Buffer A): 1.0 mL of crude extract (sample C), 1.0 mL of filtered extract (sample D), 2.0 mL of Buffer A sample solution (sample A), 2.0 mL Buffer B sample solution (sample B) and 5.0 mL acid digested extract solution. Chromatogram for the purification of myoglobin carried out by cation-exchange chromatography shows a large peak from fraction number 5 to fraction number 12. (Figure 1). The figure also indicates another peak at fraction number 23, with smaller peaks at fraction number 19 and fraction number 25 (Figure 1). Fraction number 23 has the highest 417 nm/ 280 nm (3.766) and the highest absorbance 90.278) at 280 nm (Figure 1). Discussion When myoglobin was separated by cation-exchange chromatograph, purity of the myoglobin in the eluent fractions collected at specific volumes was examined by spectroscopy. Absorbance of Myoglobin, specifically, was measured at 417 nm and other proteins was measured at 280 nm, due to the presence of Tyrosine and Tryptophan Most proteins absorbs at a wavelength of 280 nm (10). Phophyrin has an absorbance spectrum of 414nm to 418 nm, and intensity and wavelength of the absorption can be influenced by the peripheral substituents on the porphryin and the protonation state of the nitrogen atoms (6). Sincemyoglobin consists of a iron-containing heme prosthetic group with an iron-contained porphyrin ring (9), it can absorb at a wavelength of 417. Myoglobin has a PI value of 7, so it will have a net positive charge when pH is below its PI and a net negative charge when pH is above its PI. When myoglobin is positively charged when buffer A (pH=5.6) is used to wash the column, it binds to a column containing negatively charged beads in cation-exchange chromatography. The positively charged Myoglobin can then be eluted by washing the column with buffers having higher pH value than 7 (Buffer B, pH= 7.5). Raising the pH of the mobiles phase buffer renders the Myoglobin less protonated and thus negatively charged. As a result, the Myoglobin is not be able to form an ionic interaction with the negatively charged stationary phase and then elutes from the column (10). 144 ug Myoglobin was recovered form the column, which accounts for 10.7% of the myoglobin that was loaded onto the column. Loss of Myoglobin could be attributed to diffusion spreading of Myoglobin and other contaminant proteins within the mobile phase, as a result of the increase in time length (9). Recovery of myoglobin can be improved by using narrow columns, longer column (7). The molecular weight of Myoglobin (18204 Da) obtained from the SDS-PAGE was similar to the literature value, 16700 Da (4), which indicated that the purified protein in the Buffer B sample was Myoglobin. The clear band generated from Lane B migrated the same distance as the band from the Myoglobin standard, which further confirms that the purified protein was Myoglobin (Figure 3). The stoichiometric relationship between iron and hemoglobin is 20:1 instead of 1:1 according to the fact each molecule of Myoglobin has only one molecule of ion. The excessive amount of Fe might be present in oxygen-carrying protein such as hemoglobin, which contains four heme prosthetic groups. Electron carriers in the mitochondrial respiratory chain have Fe incorporated in their prosthetic group, and examples of them include cytochomr c, ubiquinone and cytochrome oxidase. Besides, another hemeprotein, ferritin might also be present in the protein sample. Hemeprotein functions to stores and release iron atoms in biologically available form for use in heme and nonheme proteins and biochemical reactions (8). In conclusion, a ratio of 1:20 for Myoglobin and iron was obtained from the ground water buffalo. 144 ug Myoglobin was purified from the filtered extract with a relative purity of 25.9%. According to SDS-PAGE, the molecular weight of Myoglobin was determined to be 18402 Da.

Comparing the American Dream of the Transcendentalists with that of The Great Gatsby :: essays research papers

Comparing the American Dream of 19th Century Transcendentalists with that of The Great Gatsby The American Dream remains viewed as the success which one obtains. The American Dream has had a great impact on literature as well as an impact on the changing of time periods. The 19th century Transcendentalists’ idea of the American Dream focuses on reaching one’s goals by honest, hard work. On the other hand, Gatsby’s idea of the American Dream in the 20th century centers on becoming successful by way of illegal money that was not acquired through working. Ultimately, the Transcendental and Gatsby’s beliefs reveal a great deal of contrast. The American Dream of the Transcendentalists centers on being all that one is meant to be. First of all, the ideas of the Transcendentalists did not revolve around society and materialistic possessions. Transcendentalists felt that â€Å"society everywhere is in conspiracy against the manhood of everyone of its members†(from Self-Reliance 194). Also, Transcendentalists believed that â€Å"The nation itself, with all its so-called internal improvements, which, by the way, are all external and superficial, is just such an unwieldy and overgrown establishment, cluttered with furniture and tripped up by its own traps, ruined by luxury and heedless expense† (from Where I Lived and What I Lived For 212) and for which the only cure is simplicity. In addition, Transcendentalists believed that man should live life to the fullest by seeking to reach their potential. Thoreau â€Å"did not wish to take a cabin passage, but rather to go before the mast and on the deck of the world, for there I [Thoreau] could best see the moonlight amid the mountains† (from Conclusion 217). Seeking to reach one’s potential means that one must â€Å"Absolve you to yourself, and you should have the suffrage of the world† (from Self-Reliance 194). Furthermore, the Transcendentalists sought self-knowledge through the study of nature. â€Å"Nature never became a toy to a wise spirit. The flowers, the animals, the mountains, reflected the wisdom of his best hour, as much as they had delighted the simplicity of his childhood† (from Nature 191). â€Å"The life in us is like the water in the river† (from Conclusion 217) because some days one rises like the river and drowns out all of ones problems. Most importantly, the ideas of nonconformity and individualism illustrate the Transcendentalist beliefs. â€Å"Whoso would be a man must be a nonconformist† (from Self-Reliance 194) shows that every man should have a unique quality that separates him from other men.

Contradictory Characterisations of Women in Shakespeares Othello Essay

Contradictory Characterisations of Women in Shakespeare's Othello    Othello opens with a discussion between two men concerning the fate of a very beautiful woman named Desdemona. One of the men is distraught, having tried to win her love but miserably failed, and the other agrees that she is quite a prize. A prize is not just a name for Desdemona, as her humanity is lost somewhere along the way and she ceases to be anything but a prize to be won. Both men are angry and want to seek revenge against the man who won her, slandering Desdemona’s name in the process. Their superior and rival, the man who won Desdemona, is none other than Othello. Othello has proven the two men inferior, obtaining what they could not. The two other mistreated women in the play are Emilia and Bianca, all three viewed as nothing more than objects of lust.   Desdemona was born from a high-class Venetian family; Emilia is a servant; Bianca is a â€Å"whore,† incidentally a word that Desdemona refuses to use. Although they all belong to completely different classes, they are all abused by men and become the objects of their sex... ...rk: Penguin Books, 1968. Neely, Carol. "Women and Men in Othello" Critical Essays on Shakespeare's Othello. Ed. Anthony G. Barthelemy Pub. Macmillan New York, NY 1994. (page 68-90) Shakespeare, William. Othello. In The Electric Shakespeare. Princeton University. 1996. http://www.eiu.edu/~multilit/studyabroad/othello/othello_all.html No line nos. Wayne, Valerie. â€Å"Historical Differences: Misogyny and Othello.† The Matter of Difference: Materialist Feminist Criticism of Shakespeare. Ed Valerie Wayne. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1991.

Business Transaction Essay

1.1 – Account Receivable(AR) (AR and Management Policy: Theory and Evidence – Shehzad L. Mian & Clifford W. Smith, Jr) The basis of my subject â€Å"Bad debt expense estimation model† stems from account receivable. Account receivable is the term used by companies to describe money owed to them by clients or customers for goods and services provided. Bad debt expense is that portion of account receivables that will not be collected. Therefore, without any receivables a company will not have bad debts, thus no need to estimate any bad debt expense. Business to business transactions are mostly done with a promise to pay for goods and services provided at a later date. When a company sells its products or provides its services to other businesses or even individuals, it expects payment for the products or services. In most cases, these payments are not done immediately. The company then expects payment at some future date. This promise to pay becomes a receivable to the company providing the goods or services. Thus, the customer goes into a legal obligation to transfer cash to the company at some future date. Receivables form a large part of most company’s assets. Going through the balance sheet of every company, one would come across account receivables registered as an asset to the company. Financial and management accounting cannot over emphasize the importance of account receivable in every organization. Being an asset, account receivable management has gained momentum in recent years in organizations and financial institutions. Since receivables ultimately stem from extending credits to customers, the issue of who to extend credits to and by how much cannot be stressed enough. It might not always be the case, but companies want to grant credit to other companies that are financially sound in order to have a greater degree of certainty that payment will be received in the future. Thus, it becomes absolutely important to grade companies and even financial institutions with regards to their payment behaviors. Companies definitely do not want to write off a big part of their assets at the end of the year as bad debt expense. Generally, there are two main types of trade account receivable. -Current AR -Past due AR Current AR are debts that have not yet exceeded the amount of time allocated for the debt to be paid as agreed upon by the creditor and the debtor. In most cases, the length of time for the payment of a debt ranges from ten(10) to as long as ninety(90) days and even to a year in rear cases. This length of time could be longer for specific debts like notes receivable(loan related) issued by companies. Past due debts are those that have not been paid within the agreed payment term. These are the ones that mostly draw the attention of managers and credit professionals. This is because, the longer a debt is past due, the greater the chances of a debtor defaulting on the payment of the debt. Managing account receivable has always been a daunting task for managers and other finance professionals. Each organization has its unique operating characteristics and this also calls for different techniques and ways of managing AR. Nonetheless, the foundation behind AR is the policy and procedure for granting credit of the organization. Most organizations obviously want to increase their sales, but the policies they use to assess clients to whom they extend credit will ultimately determine the size of their receivables and to a greater extent, the size of the allowance for bad debt and bad debt expense. Thus, the credit policies an organization uses will determine the amount of receivables which they need to achieve at any given time. A credit policy is a key financial management guideline that should be prepared under the guidance of top finance managers and accountants. It should incorporate the company’s goal, the criteria and timetable of achieving these goals as they relate to credit functions and the type of accounts/clients that would be required to generate liquidity. Changes in business or economic environment sometimes require that credit policies be readjusted to cope with these changes. Some flexibility must be written into any credit policy to avoid adverse effects of over or too less rigidity. Different organizations adapt different credit policies. Basically, there are three credit policies and they include restrictive, moderate and liberal credit policies. 1 – Restrictive/conservative credit Policy This is a very conservative outlook on lending credit to potential customers. Companies that adopt this kind of credit policy mostly deal with only well established customers and customers that pay within terms of payment. The company is unwilling to take risks that are more than minor, preferring to do business with customers that are financially stable. Most companies adopting this policy are invariably in solid financial position themselves and would want to maintain this status quo. Most of them survive even long after more aggressive companies have failed. These companies do not have the need to make any estimate for bad debt expense or allowance since they will have almost no client defaulting on their debts. However, this policy of conservatism is not without its own inherent risks. It can stifle the growth and cash flow of the company to dangerous levels. The company becomes less competitive and potential customers become reluctant to do business with it. Receivables could reduce drastically since tough credit policies hinder the rapid replacement of old customers or customers that have gone out of business. 2 – Moderate credit(Middle-of-the-road) policy Companies adopting this policy generally extend credit to good customers as well as to average customers. It strives to find a healthy mix of customers that would both support company growth prospects as well as minimize risks of default. Most companies fall under this category with regard to their credit policies. These companies would tolerate late payments to an extent, they would mostly extend discounts to encourage risky customers to pay within agreed payment terms. They would also require bank guarantees to monitor cash flow and risks of default while attracting more customers. These companies do have a greater need to estimate bad debt expense and allowance since they do make risky sales that will result to nonpayment at the end of the period. Thus, by virtue of their moderate credit policy, they expect to write off some part of their receivables as bad debt. Applied Materials Europe B.V. is a good example of a company that adopts such a policy. 3 – Liberal credit policy This is the most dangerous of the three policies. Companies adopting this kind of policy are high risk takers in every area of their operation, mostly with the aim of propelling sales and company growth. They expand much too rapidly for the size and worth of the company, and this often indicates accepting customers that are not financially stable enough for the credit line they receive. The loss of receivables can be heavy and the danger to the company’s survival can be real. Liberal credit grantors are frequently incapable of handling any major loss due to customer defaulting their payments. In addition, undercapitalization and sporadic cash flows may afflict these companies with liberal credit policies. The companies may find themselves not being able to financially accommodate their rapid growth due to insufficient capital brought about by the loss of receivables and sporadic cash flows. These companies, more than others, have to have a robust model in place for estimating their bad debt expense and allowance since payment default probability from their clients will be high and it will happen frequently. It will not be surprising that companies like these will have a high percentage of their receivables written off as bad debt at the end of the period . 1.2 – Bad Debt Expense and Bad Debt Allowance(Allowance for Doubtful Accounts) Bad debt expense is that amount of money which a company is unable to collect from its debtors. This is regarded as an expense because it comes as a cost to the company. It is as a result of doing business with other companies that this cost/loss is incurred. This amount is periodically written off from the client’s account especially when the client goes bankrupt or when the company thinks that the cost of pursuing this client for payment will outweigh what is due by the client. At this stage, the amount owed by the client is credited in the client’s account to remove the balance due. Depending on the accounting system used by the company, the account that is debited is the â€Å"allowance for doubtful account†. Or, the write off could be done by debiting the bad debt expense account and crediting the allowance for bad debt(doubtful) account. Being an expense, bad debt expense is usually recorded on the income statement of the company since it affects revenue or sales. Bad Debt Allowance or Allowance for Doubtful Account(these account names mean one and the same thing and could be used interchangeably) is a balance sheet account. When a company is in doubt that a particular client will not pay, the company will record the amount owed to it by this client in this special account. This is a contra asset account that reduces the account receivable account. This account is adjusted periodically with current estimated amounts and it is from this account that write offs are made in conjunction to bad debt expense. The Financial Accounting Standard Board(FASB) Accounting Standard Codification(ASC) 310-10-35-7 through 310-10-35-9 requires companies to account for these losses from uncollectible receivables when it is probable that the asset(account receivable) will not be collected and when this amount can be reasonably estimated. The allowance balance is subtracted from account receivable to get the â€Å"net accounts receivable† as shown on the balance sheet of most companies. The amount in the â€Å"net accounts receivable† accounts is a more realistic figure of receivables since this takes into account the uncollectible.